1. El Hijo Del Ajedrecista
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La historia del Monopoly se remonta a principios del siglo XX. El primer diseño conocido es el que elaboró la estadounidenseElizabeth Magie en 1903. Desde 1906 hasta los años 1930 se desarrolló una serie de juegos de tablero que implicaban la compraventa de tierras y el desarrollo de las mismas. Para 1934, se había creado un juego de mesa muy parecido a la versión de Monopoly vendida por Parker Brothers y sus empresas matrices durante el resto del siglo XX y XXI. Varias personas, la mayoría del Medio Oeste de Estados Unidos y de la Costa Este, contribuyeron al diseño y desarrollo del juego.

Para los años 1970, la creencia de que el juego había side creado únicamente por Charles Darrow se volvió popular: se imprimía en las instrucciones del juego e incluso en el libro de 1974 The Monopoly Book: Strategy and Tactics of the World's Most Popular Game (en español: El Libro del Monopoly: Estrategia y Tácticas del Juego Más Popular del Mundo) de Maxine Brady. En esa misma década, el profesor Ralph Anspach peleó con Parker Brothers y su empresa matriz, General Mills, por los derechos comerciales del Monopoly. A través de las investigaciones de Anspech y otros el juego fue «redescubierto». Anspach se enfrentó a Brady sobre la auténtica historia del juego en el talk show de Barry Farber en 1975.^[1]​ Debido al largo proceso judicial, incluyendo apelaciones, el estatus legal de los derechos comerciales de Parker Brothers con el juego no fue resuelto hasta 1985. El nombre del juego permanece como marca registrada de Parker Brothers, así como los elementos de diseño específicos. Como conclusión del caso, el logotipo del juego y los elementos de diseño gráfico pasaron a formar parte de una mayor marca «Monopoly», con licencia de las empresas matriz de Parker Brothers sobre una gran variedad de objetos hasta hoy en día. A pesar del «redescubrimiento» de la historia del juego en los años 1970 y 80, y varios libros y artículos periodísticos sobre el tema, Hasbro (la actual empresa matriz de Parker Brothers) no reconoce ninguna de las historias sobre el juego antes de Charles Darrow en el sitio web oficial de Monopoly, ni en otros materiales publicados o patrocinados por Hasbro.^[2]​

Los torneos internacionales, que comenzaron a principios de los años 1970, continúan disputándose hoy en día, estando programado el próximo campeonato mundial para 2013. Comenzando en 1985, apareció una nueva generación de juegos de tableros spin-off. En 1989, se publicó el primer videojuego del Monopoly. Desde 1994, Hasbro ha publicado muchas variantes oficiales del juego, basadas en lugares distintos a Atlantic City, Nueva Jersey (la oficial de Estados Unidos) o Londres (la oficial del Commonwealth, excepto Canadá). En 2008, Hasbro cambió permanentemente el esquema de colores y la jugabilidad de la edición estándar de Estados Unidos para igualarla con la edición del Reino Unido, aunque la edición estadounidense mantiene los nombres de Atlantic City. Hasbro también modificó el logotipo oficial para dar al personaje de Mr. Monopoly un aspecto tridimensional.

• 2Adquisición por parte de Parker Brothers
• 3The Monopoly Tournaments 1973–2009
• 10Enlaces externos

Desarrollo del juego (1903-1904)[editar]

En 1903, la georgistaLizzie Magie solicitó la patente de un juego llamado The Landlord's Game (en español: El Juego del Terrateniente) con el objetivo de mostrar que los alquileres enriquecían a los propietarios y empobrecían a los inquilinos. Sabía que a alguna gente le costaría entender la lógica detrás de la idea, y pensó que si el problema de los alquileres y su solución georgista tomaran forma concreta en un juego, sería más fácil de demostrar. Se le concedió la pantente para el juego en enero de 1904. The Landlord's Game se convirtió en uno de los primeros juegos de mesa en usar un «camino continuo», sin espacios definidos de principio y fin en el tablero.^[3]​ Una copia del juego de Magie, que data de 1903-1904, fue descubierta por el programa History Detectives, de la PBS. Esta copia presentaba grupos de propiedades, organizadas por letras, lo que fue más tarde de las principales características del Monopoly publicado por Parker Brothers.^[4]​

Aunque se patentó The Landlord's Game, y se hicieron algunos tableros artesanales, no se fabricó y publicó realmente hasta 1906. Magie y otros dos georgistas crearon la Economic Game Company of New York (en español: Compañía del Juego Económico de Nueva York), que empezó a publicar su juego.^[3]​ Magie presentó una edición publicada por la Economic Game Company a Parker Brothers alrededor de 1910, que George Parker rechazó publicar.^[3]​ En el Reino Unido fue publicado en 1913 por la Newbie Game Company (en español: Compañía del Juego Novato) bajo el nombre de Brer Fox an' Brer Rabbit (en español: Hermano Zorro y Hermano Conejo).^[5]​^[3]​ Tras la publicación formal del juego, Scott Nearing, un profesor de la Wharton Business School en la Universidad de Pensilvania, empezó a usar el juego como una herramienta para la enseñanza en sus clases. Sus alumnos hicieron sus propios tableros y se los enseñaron a los demás.^[3]​ Después de que despidieran a Nearing del Wharthon School, empezó a dar clases en la Universidad de Toledo, Ohio. Un antiguo alumno de Nearing, Rexford Tugwell, también enseñó con The Landlord's Game en Wharton, y lo llevó también a la Universidad de Columbia.^[3]​

El Hijo Del Ajedrecista

Una versión acortada del juego de Magie, que eliminaba la segunda ronda de juego que usaba un concepto georgista de un Impuesto sobre Bienes Inmuebles, se volvió común durante los años 1910. Esta variación del juego pasó a conocerse como «Auction Monopoly» (en español: Monopoly de subastas).^[6]​ Magie volvió a Illinois, se casó y se mudó al área de Washington, D.C. con su esposo en 1923, y re-patentó una versión de The Landlord's Game en 1924 (bajo su nombre de casada, Elizabeth Magie Phillips). Esta version, a diferencia de su primer patent drawing, incluía calles nombradas (aunque las versiones publicadas en 1910 basadas en su primer patente también tenían calles con nombres). El primer patente de Magie había expirado, y ella busco recuperar control sobre la plétora de juegos hechos a mano.^[7]​ Para su edición de 1924, un par de calles en el tablero fueron nombradas en honor a calles y sitios de Chicago, notablemente 'The Loop' y 'Lake Shore Drive.'^[8]​ Esta revisión incluía una regla y carta especial de 'Monopoly' que permitía alquileres mås caros a ser cobrados cuando los tres railroads and utilities eran adquiridos, e incluían 'fichas' para indicar mejorías en propiedades.^[9]​ Magie todavía abordaba a los Parker Brothers sobre su juego y George Parker otra vez declinaba.^[10]​ Aparte de la distribución comercial, se regaba por voz y era jugado en versiones caseras ligeramente diferentes a lo largo de los años por la Quakers, georgistas, estudiantes universitarios (incluyendo estudiantes de Smith College, Princeton, y MIT), y otros que se enteraban de ello.^[11]​^[12]​

En los 1920s, el juego se convirtió popular alrededor de la comunidad de Reading, Pennsylvania. Otro antiguo alumno de Scott Nearing, Thomas Wilson, enseño el juego a dos hermanos, Louis y Ferdinand Thun.^[13]​ Luego que los Thuns aprendieran el juego y comenzaran a enseñar las reglas a sus hermanos de la fraternidad en Williams College, Daniel W. Layman, a su vez, aprendio el juego de los hermanos Thun (quienes luego trataron de vender copias del juego comercialmente, pero fueron asesorados por un abogado que el juego no podía see patentado, ya que ellos no eran los inventores).^[14]​ Layman luego regreso a su ciudad natal de Indianapolis, Indiana, y produjo una versión del tablero basado en calles de esa cuidad. Esto lo vendió bajo el nombre The Fascinating Game of Finance (luego acortado a Finance), comenzando en 1932.^[15]​ Layman primero produció y vendió el juego con un amigo en Indianapolis, quien era dueño de una compañía llamada Electronic Laboratories.^[16]​ Layman pronto vendió sus derechos al juego, que a continuación fue autorizado, producido y comercializado por Knapp Electric.^[17]​ El tablero publicado consistía de cuatro ferrocarriles (uno por lado), cartas y espacios de Chance y Community Chest, y propiedades agrupadas por símbolo, en lugar de color.^[18]​

Fue en Indianapolis que Ruth Hoskins aprendió a jugar, y lo llevo de vuelta a Atlantic City.^[19]​ Después de llegar, Hoskins hizo un nuevo tablero con los nombres de las calles en Atlantic City, y lo enseño a un grupo local de Quakers.^[20]​ Se ha discutido que su mayor contribución al juego fue de implementar la regla original de Lizzie Magie de 'comprar propiedades a su precio listado' en vez de subastarlas, porque los Quakers no creían en subastas.^[21]​^[22]​ El tablero de Atlantic City fue el que se le enseño a Charles Todd, que en cambio enseño a Esther Darrow, esposa de Charles Darrow.^[23]​ Todd había acortado el nombre Shore Fast Line a Short Line, y además introdujo el infame error de ortografía 'Marvin Gardens', ambos de los cuales fueron reproducidos por Darrow.^[24]​ Luego de haber aprendido el juego, Darrow entonces comenzó el mismo a distribuir el juego como Monopoly.^[14]​ Darrow inicialmente hacía a mano los sets del juego Monopoly con la ayuda de su primer hijo, William Darrow, y su esposa. Sus sets nuevos mantenían el error ortográfico de Charles Todd's de 'Marvin Gardens'.^[23]​ Charles Darrow dibujo los diseños con una pluma de bosquejo en piezas redondas de oilcloth, y luego su hijo y esposa lo ayudo a llenar los espacios con colores y hacer las tarjetas de título de propiedad y las cartas Chance cards y Community Chest cards. Luego de que la demanda del juego incrementara, Darrow contacto a una compañía de impresión, Patterson y White, quienes imprimieron los diseños de los espacios de propiedad para tableros cuadrados de carton. Los diseños de tablero de Darrow incluían elementos que luego se hicieron famosos en la eventual version producida por Parker Brothers, incluyendo locomotoras negras en los espacios de ferrocarril, el coche en 'Free Parking,' la flecha roja para 'Go,' el grifo en 'Water Works' y la bombilla en 'Electric Company' y los signos de interrogación en los espacios de 'Chance', aunque muchos de los iconos actuales fueron creados por un artista gráfico contratado.^[25]​^[26]​ Mientras Darrow recibió un derecho de autor en su juego en 1933, sus ejemplares han desaparecido de los archivos de United States Copyright Office, aunque la prueba de su registro se mantiene.^[27]​

Adquisición por parte de Parker Brothers[editar]

Darrow primero llevo el juego a Milton Bradley y trato the venderlo como su invento personal. Lo rechazaron en una carta fechada el 31 de mayo, 1934.^[29]​ Luego que Darrow primero mandara el juego a Parker Brothers más tarde en 1934, ellos rechazaron el juego al ser 'demasiado complicado, demasiado técnico, [y que] tomaba demasiado tiempo para jugar.'^[30]​ Darrow recibió una carta de rechazo de la compañía fechada el 19 de octubre, 1934.^[29]​ En 1935, sin embargo, la compañio se enteró sobre las excelentes ventas del juego en Philadelphia y programó una nueva reunión con Darrow en Nueva York. Allí le compraron el juego a Darrow, le ayudaron a sacar una patente sobre el mismo, y compraron su inventario restante.^[31]​ Posteriormente, los Parker Brothers decidieron comprar el patente de 1924 de Magie y los derechos de autor de otros variantes comerciales del juego para reclamar que tenían derechos legítimos indiscutibles del juego.

Robert Barton, presidente de Parker Brothers, compro los derechos a Finance de Knapp Electric en 1935. Finance sería remodelado, actualizado, y continuamente vendido por Parker Brothers en la década de 1970.^[32]​ Otros juegos de mesa basados en un principio similar, tal como el juego llamado Inflation, publicado por Rudy Copeland en Texas, también le llamó la atención a Parker Brothers en la decade de 1930, luego de que comenzaran ventas de Monopoly.^[33]​ Copeland continuó las ventas de este juego después que Parker Brothers intentó una demanda de patente. Los Parker Brothers tenían los patentes de Magie y Darrow, pero se la arreglaron con Copeland para evitar ir a juicio, ya que Copeland estaba preparado a tener testigos que darían testimonio que ellos habían jugado 'Monopoly' antes del juego 'inventado' de Darrow.^[34]​ La resolución judicial permitió que Copeland licenciara los patentes de Parker Brother.^[35]​ Otros acuerdos se alcanzaron en Big Business por Transogram, y Easy Money por Milton Bradley, basado en Finance de Daniel Layman.^[36]​ Otro clon, llamado Fortune, fue vendido por Parker Brothers, y se combinó con Finance en algunas ediciones.^[37]​

Monopoly se comercializó por primera vez a gran escala por Parker Brothers en 1935. La edición estándar, con una pequeña caja negra y tablero separado, y una version más grande de lujo con una caja lo suficientemente grande para incluir el tablero, fueron vendidas en el primer año que los Parker Brothers se convirtieron propietarios. Eran basadas en las dos ediciones vendidas por Darrow.^[38]​ El mismo George Parker re-escribio muchas de las reglas del juego, insistiendo que reglas de 'juego corto' y 'limite de tiempo' fueran incluidas.^[39]​ En el tablero de original de Parker Brothers (re-impresa en 2002 por Winning Moves Games), no habían iconos para los espacios de Community Chest (el cofre azul lleno de monedas de oro llegó más tarde) ni anillo de oro en el espacio de Impuestos de Lujo. Tampoco estaban los valores de propiedad impresos en los espacios del tablero. El impuesto sobre ingresos era ligeramente más alto (siendo $300 o 10%, en vez de los siguiente $200 o 10%). Algunos de los diseños conocidos hoy eran implementados a petición de George Parker.^[39]​ Las cartas de Chance cards y las Community Chest cards eran ilustradas (aunque algunas ediciones anteriores consistían exclusivamente de texto), pero no tenían 'Rich Uncle Pennybags,' quien fue introducido en 1936.

Más tarde en 1935, luego de enterarse de The Landlord's Game y Finance, Robert Barton llevo a cabo una segunda reunion con Charles Darrow en Boston. Darrow admitió que había copiado el juego de un set que le pertenecía a un amigo, entonces el y Barton llegaron a un acuerdo de regalías revisado, otorgandole a Parker Brothers derechos mundiales y liberando a Darrow de costos legales que se hubieran incurrido en la defensa del origen del juego.^[40]​

Licencias fuera de Estados Unidos[editar]

En diciembre del 1935, Parker Brothers enviaron una copia del juego a Victor Watson Sr. de Waddington Games. Watson y su hijo Norman trataron el juego en el fin de semana, y le gustó tanto que Waddington tomo el (ahí entonces extraordinario) paso de hacer una llamada transatlantica a Parker Brothers; esto suficientemente impresionó a Parker Brothers que le concedieron a Waddington derechos de licencia para Europa y a la en ese entonces-Mancomunidad de Naciones, excluyendo a Canadá.^[41]​ La versión de Waddington, su primer juego de mesa, con lugares de London sue substituyeron a los lugares originales de Atlantic City, fue poducido primer en 1936. El juego fue muy exitoso en el Reino Unido y Francia, pero la versión alemana de 1930, con lugares de Berlin, fue denunciada por el régimen nazi.^[42]​ Una nueva edición alemana, con calles 'genéricas' y nombres de estaciones de tren (i.e. no elegidas de ciudades alemanas) no apareció hasta la década de 1960.^[43]​ La edición alemana de 1935 con las cartas originales y lugares de Berlin fue re-impresa en 2003 por Hasbro.

Waddington licenció otras ediciones desde el 1936 haste el 1938, y el juego fue exportado desde el Reino Unido y re-vendido o re-impreso en Suiza, Bélgica, Australia, Chile, Italia, los Países Bajos y Suecia. En Italia, bajo los fascistas, el juego fue cambiado dramáticamente para que tuviera un nombre italiano, ubicaciones en Milán, y cambios en las reglas. El editor italiano Editrice Giochi produjo el juego en Italia hasta el 2009, habiendo mantenido un acuerdo de licencia de Parker Brothers que databa del 1935/1936. A partir de 2009, Hasbro se ha hecho cargo de la publicación del juego en Italia, como así también, por ahora, mantiene las propiedades basadas en Milan.^[44]​

In Austria, versions of the game first appeared as Business and Spekulation (Speculation), and eventually evolved to become Das Kaufmännische Talent (DKT) (The Businessman's Talent). Versions of DKT have been sold in Austria since 1940. The game first appeared as Monopoly in Austria in about 1981.^[45]​ The Waddingtons edition was imported into The Netherlands starting in 1937, and a fully translated edition first appeared in 1941.^[46]​

Waddingtons later produced special games during World War II, distributed by the International Committee of the Red Cross, which secretly contained files, a compass, a map printed on silk, and real currency hidden amongst the Monopoly money, to enable prisoners of war to escape from German camps.^[47]​^[48]​ However, this story has come under recent scrutiny and is being disputed.^[49]​

Collector Albert C. Veldhuis features a map on his 'Monopoly Lexicon' website showing which versions of the game were remade and distributed in other countries, with the Atlantic City, London, and Paris versions being the most influential.^[50]​ After World War II, home made games would sometimes appear behind the Iron Curtain, despite the fact that the game was effectively banned.^[51]​ One official version of the game was printed for the Soviet Union by Parker Brothers in 1988.^[52]​

Marketing within the United States 1930s[editar]

In 1936 Parker Brothers published four further editions along with the original two: the Popular Edition, Fine Edition, Gold Edition, and Deluxe Edition, with prices ranging from US$2 to US$25 in 1930s money.^[53]​ After Parker Brothers began to release its first editions of the game, Elizabeth Magie Phillips was profiled in the Washington D.C. Evening Star newspaper, which discussed her two editions of 'The Landlord's Game.'^[54]​ In December 1936, wary of the Mah-Jongg and Ping-Pong fads that had left unsold inventory stuck in Parker Brothers' warehouse, George Parker ordered a stop to Monopoly production as sales leveled off. However, during the Christmas season, sales picked up again, and continued a resurgence.^[55]​ In early 1937, as Parker Brothers was preparing to release the board game 'Bulls and Bears' with Darrow's photograph on the box lid (though he had no involvement with the game), a Time magazine article about the game made it seem as if Darrow was the sole inventor of both 'Bulls and Bears' and Monopoly

If it is true that the devil finds work for idle hands to do, the No. 1 U.S. Mephistopheles is currently a mild little Philadelphian named Charles Darrow. Mr. Darrow's claim to the title, based on Monopoly, U.S. parlor craze of 1936, was last week reinforced when Parker Brothers began to distribute his second invention for idle hands. The new Darrow game is Bulls & Bears. Success of Monopoly, which was last week estimated to be in its sixth million and selling faster than ever, gave Bulls & Bears a pre-publication sale of 100,000, largest on record for a new game.TIME magazine, 'Sport: 1937 Games,' February 1, 1937, pg. 44.

Parker Brothers marketing 1940s–1970s[editar]

At the start of World War II, both Parker Brothers and Waddington stockpiled materials they could use for further game production. During the war, Monopoly was produced with wooden tokens in the U.S., and the game's cellophane cover was eliminated.^[56]​ In the UK, metal tokens were also eliminated, and a special spinner was introduced to take the place of dice. The game remained in print for a time even in the Netherlands, as the printer there was able to maintain a supply of paper.^[57]​ The game remained popular during the war, particularly in camps, and soldiers playing the game became part of the product's advertising in 1944.^[58]​

After the war, sales went from 800,000 a year to over a million. The French and German editions re-entered production, and new editions for Spain, Greece, Finland and Israel were first produced.^[59]​ By the late 1950s, the company printed only game sets with board, pieces and materials housed in a single white box.^[60]​ Several copies of this edition were exhibited at the American National Exhibition in Moscow in 1959. All of them were stolen from the exhibit.^[61]​ In the early 1960s, 'Monopoly happenings' began to occur, mostly marathon game sessions, which were recognized by a Monopoly Marathon Records Documentation Committee in New York City.^[62]​ In addition to marathon sessions, games were played on large indoor and outdoor boards, within backyard pits, on the ceiling in a University of Michigan dormitory room, and underwater.^[63]​ In 1965, a 30th anniversary set was produced in a special plastic case.^[64]​ By 1974, Parker Brothers had sold 80 million sets of the game.^[65]​ In 1973, as the Atlantic City Commissioner of Public Works considered name changes for Baltic and Mediterranean Avenues, fans of the board game, with support from the president of Parker Brothers, successfully lobbied for the city to keep the names.^[66]​ In 1975, another anniversary edition was produced, but this edition came in a cardboard box looking much like a standard edition.^[64]​

House Rules and Custom Rules[editar]

The official Parker Brothers rules and board remained largely unchanged from 1936-2008. Ralph Anspach argued against this during his conversation with Maxine Brady in 1975, calling it an end to 'steady progress' and an impediment to progress.^[67]​ Several authors who have written about the board game have noted many of the 'house rules' that have become common among players, although they do not appear in Parker Brothers' rules sheets. Gyles Brandreth included a section titled 'Monopoly Variations,' Tim Moore notes several such rules used in his household in his Foreword, Phil Orbanes included his own section of variations, and Maxine Brady noted a few in her preface.^[68]​^[69]​^[70]​^[71]​

Monopoly (Game Show)[editar]

In 1990, Merv Griffin Enterprises turned Monopoly into a Primetime Game Show, airing after Super Jeopardy!, saturday nights on ABC. The Monopoly Game Show was hosted by Mike Reilly.

When creating some of the modern licensed editions, such as the Looney Tunes and The Powerpuff Girls editions of Monopoly, Hasbro included special variant rules to be played in the theme of the licensed property. Infogrames, which has published a CD-ROM edition of Monopoly, also includes the selection of 'house rules' as a possible variant of play. EA, which publishes current versions of the game, such as for the Nintendo Wii, also includes the selection of certain house rules.

Changes since 2006[editar]

The first huge changes to the Monopoly game itself occurred with the publication of both the Monopoly Here & Now Electronic Banking Edition by Hasbro and Monopoly: The Mega Edition by Winning Moves Games in 2006. The Electronic Banking Edition uses VISA-branded debit cards and a debit card reader for monetary transactions, instead of paper bills.^[72]​ This edition is available in the UK, Germany, France, Australia and Ireland. A version was released in the U.S. in 2007, albeit without the co-branding by Visa. An electronic counter had been featured in the Stock Exchange editions released in Europe in the early 2000s, and is also a feature of the Monopoly City board game released in 2009.

The Mega Edition has been expanded to include fifty-two spaces (with more street names taken from Atlantic City), skyscrapers (to be played after hotels), train depots, the 1000 denomination of play money, as well as 'bus tickets' and a speed die.^[73]​ Shortly after the release of Mega Monopoly in 2006, Hasbro adopted the same blue version of the speed die into a special 'Speed Die Edition' of the game. By 2008, the die, now red, became a permanent addition to the game, though its use remains optional there. In 2009's 'Championship Edition', use of the speed die is mandatory, as it also became mandatory in most of 2009's Monopoly tournaments.

In addition to permanently adding the speed die in 2008, Hasbro also instituted further changes to the United States standard edition of the board, including making Mediterranean and Baltic Avenues a brown color group, making the Income Tax space a flat $200 (removing the 10% option), increasing the Luxury Tax to $100 (from $75), and changing certain of the Community Chest and Chance cards. The changes in these four áreas made the U.S. standard edition more uniform with the UK and modern European editions. In 2009, Winning Moves Games introduced 'The Classic Edition', with a pre-2008 game board and cards, re-inclusion of the 'sack of money' playing piece, and a plain MONOPOLY logo in the center of the board, with neither the 1985 or 2008 version of 'Mr. Monopoly' present. Also in 2009, Monopoly 'theme packs' entered the retail market, including the Dog Lovers and Sports Fans editions, which include customized money, replacements for houses and hotels, and custom tokens, but no board. In early 2010, Hasbro began selling the 'Free Parking' and 'Get out of Jail' add-on games, which can be played alone or when a player lands on the respective Monopoly board spaces. If played during a Monopoly game, success at either game gets the winning player a 'free taxi ride to any space on the board' or 'out of jail free,' respectively.

In 2010, for the 75th anniversary of the game's publication, Hasbro released Monopoly Revolution, giving the game a graphic redesign, as well as returning it to a round shape, which had not been seen since some of Darrow's 1930s custom-made sets. The game includes 'bank cards' and keeps track of players' assets electronically, as was introduced in the 'Electronic Banking Edition' earlier in the decade.^[74]​ The game also features clear plastic playing pieces for movers, and electronic sound effects, triggered by certain events (for instance, a 'jail door slam' sound effect when a player goes to jail).

The Monopoly Tournaments 1973–2009[editar]

The first Monopoly tournaments were suggested by Victor Watson of Waddington after the World Chess Championship 1972. Such championships are also held for players of the board game Scrabble. The first European Championship was held in Reykjavík, Iceland, the same site as the 1972 World Chess Championship. Accounts differ as to the eventual winner: Philip Orbanes and Victor Watson^[75]​ name John Mair, representing Ireland and the eventual World Monopoly Champion of 1975, as also having won the European Championship.^[76]​ Gyles Brandreth, himself a later European Monopoly Champion, names Pierre Milet, representing France, as the European Champion.^[77]​ One of the reasons that there may be differing accounts of the eventual winner is due to some minor controversy with the final game. According to Parker Brothers' Randolph 'Ranny' P. Barton,^[78]​ an error was made by one of the participants and a protest was filed by an opponent. The judges (Barton, Watson, and a representative from Miro) weighed the options of starting the final game over and delaying the chartered plane that would take them home from Iceland vs allowing the game to stand with the error but allowing them to make their flight. In the end, the judges upheld the result of the game with the error uncorrected.

Victor Watson and Ranny Barton began holding tournaments in the UK and U.S., respectively. World Champions were declared in the United States in 1973 and 1974 (and are still considered official World Champions by Hasbro). While the 1973 tournament, the first, matched three United States regional champions against the UK champion and thus could be argued as the first international tournament, true multinational international tournaments were first held in 1975.^[79]​ Both authors (Orbanes and Brandreth) do agree on John Mair as being the first true World Champion, as decided in tournament play held in Washington, D.C. days after the conclusion of the European Championship, in November 1975.

By 1982, tournaments in the United States featured a competition between tournament winners in all 50 states, competing to become the United States Champion. National tournaments are held in the U.S. and UK the year before World Championships. The determination of the U.S. champion was changed for the 2003 tournament: winners of an Internet-based quiz challenge were selected to compete, rather than one state champion for each of the 50 states.^[80]​ The tournaments are now typically held every four to five years, so the next World Championship is likely to be scheduled for 2013. The U.S. edition Monopoly board is used at the World championship level, while national variants are used at the national level.^[81]​ Since true international play began in 1975, no World champion has come from the U.S., still considered the board game's 'birthplace.' However, Dana Terman, two time U.S. Champion, placed second at the 1980 World Championship.

World Tournament locations and champions[editar]

United States MONOPOLY Championship winners[editar]

Canada MONOPOLY Championship winners[editar]

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Anti-Monopoly, Inc. vs. General Mills Fun Group, Inc. court case 1976–1985[editar]

In the mid-1970s, Parker Brothers and its then corporate parent, General Mills, attempted to suppress publication of a game called Anti-Monopoly, designed by San Francisco State University economics professor Ralph Anspach. Anspach began to research the game's history, and argued that the copyrights and trademarks held by Parker Brothers should be nullified, as the game came out of the public domain. Among other things, Anspach discovered the empty 1933 Charles B. Darrow file at the United States Copyright Office, testimony from the Inflation game case that was settled out of court, and letters from Knapp Electric challenging Parker Brothers over Monopoly. As the case went to trial in November 1976, Anspach produced testimony by many involved with the early development of the game, including Catherine and Willard Allphin, Dorothea Raiford and Charles Todd. Willard Allphin attempted to sell a version of the game to Milton Bradley in 1931, and published an article about the game's early history in the UK in 1975.^[88]​ Raiford had helped Ruth Hoskins produce the early Atlantic City games.^[89]​ Even Daniel Layman was interviewed, and Darrow's widow was deposed.^[90]​ The presiding judge, Spencer Williams, originally ruled for Parker Brothers/General Mills in 1977, allowing the Monopoly trademark to stand, and allowing the companies to destroy copies of Anspach's Anti-Monopoly.^[91]​ Anspach appealed.

In 1979, the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled in favor of Professor Anspach, with an opinion that agreed with the facts about the game's history and differed from Parker Brothers' 'official' account. The court also upheld a 'purchasing motivation' test, nullifying the Monopoly trademark, and returned the case to Judge Williams. Williams heard the case again in 1980, and in 1981 he again held for Parker Brothers.^[92]​ Anspach appealed again, and in November 1981 the appeals court again reversed.^[93]​ The case was then appealed by General Mills/Parker Brothers to the United States Supreme Court, which decided not to hear the case in February 1983, and denied a petition for rehearing in April.^[94]​ This allowed the appeals court's decision to stand and further allowed Anspach to resume publication of his game.^[95]​

With the trademark nullified, Parker Brothers and other firms lobbied the United States Congress and got a revision of the trademark laws. The case was finally settled in 1985, with Monopoly remaining a valid trademark of Parker Brothers, and Anspach assigning the Anti-Monopoly trademark to the company but retaining the ability to use it under license.^[96]​ Anspach received compensation for court costs and the destroyed copies of his game, as well as unspecified damages. He was allowed to resume publication with a legal disclaimer.^[97]​ Anspach later self-published a book about his research and legal fights with General Mills, Kenner Parker Toys, and Hasbro.

Localizations, licenses, and spin-offs[editar]

The original Monopoly game had been localized for the cities or áreas in which it was played, and Parker Brothers has continued this practice. Their version of Monopoly has been produced for international markets, with the place names being localized for cities including London and Paris and for countries including the Netherlands and Germany, among others. By 1982, Parker Brothers stated that the game 'has been translated into over 15 languages....'^[98]​ As of 2009, Hasbro reports that Monopoly is officially published in 27 languages, and has been licensed by them in 81 countries.^[99]​

The game has also inspired official spin-offs, such as the board game Advance to Boardwalk from 1985. There have been five card games: Water Works from 1972. Free Parking from 1988, Express Monopoly from 1993, Monopoly: The Card Game from 1999, and Monopoly Deal from 2008. Finally, there have been two dice games: Don't Go to Jail from 1991 and an update, Monopoly Express, (2006–2007). A second product line of games and licenses exists in Monopoly Junior, first published in 1990. In the late 1980s, official editions of Monopoly appeared for the Sega Master System and the Commodore 64 and Commodore 128.^[100]​ A television game show, produced by King World Productions, was attempted in the summer of 1990, but lasted for only 12 episodes. In 1991–1992, official versions appeared for the AppleMacintosh and Nintendo's NES, SNES, and Game Boy.^[101]​ In 1995, as Hasbro (which had taken over Tonka Kenner Parker in the early 1990s) was preparing to launch Hasbro Interactive as a new brand, they chose Monopoly to be their first CD-ROM game, with an option for playing over the Internet. CD-ROM versions of the officially licensed Star Wars and FIFA World Cup '98 editions also were released.^[102]​ Later CD-ROM exclusive spin-offs, Monopoly Casino and Monopoly Tycoon, were also produced under license.

Since 1994, various manufacturers of the game have created dozens of versions in which the names of the properties and other elements of the game are replaced by others according to the game's theme. There are officially-licensed versions with themes that include national parks, Doctor Who,^[103]​ Star Trek, Star Wars, Nintendo, Disney, Peanuts, various particular cities (such as Las Vegas or Cambridge), states, colleges and universities, the World Cup, NASCAR, and many others. Hasbro has officially licensed two companies to produce further Monopoly editions: USAopoly and Winning Moves Games. USAopoly also sells special corporate editions of Monopoly.^[104]​ Official corporate editions have been produced for Best Buy, the Boy Scouts of America, FedEx, and UPS, among others.^[105]​

Unofficial versions of the game, which share some of the same playing features, but also incorporate changes so as not to infringe on copyrights, have been created by firms such as Late for the Sky Production Company and Help on Board. These are done for smaller cities, sometimes as charity fundraisers, and some have been created for college and university campuses. Others have non-geographical themes such as Wine-opoly and Chocolate-opoly.

In late 1998, Hasbro announced a campaign to add an all-new token to U.S. standard edition sets of Monopoly. Voters were allowed to select from a biplane, a piggy bank, and a sack of money — with votes being tallied through a special website, vía a toll-free phone number, and at FAO Schwarz stores. In March 1999, Hasbro announced that the winner was the sack of money (with 51 percent of the vote, compared to 29 percent for the biplane and 20 percent for the piggy bank). Thus, the sack of money became the first new token added to the game since the early 1950s.^[106]​ In 1999, in a major marketing effort, Hasbro renamed the mascot Rich Uncle Pennybags to 'Mr. Monopoly,' felt by some to be a less-interesting name.

Before the creation of Hasbro Interactive, and after its later sale to Infogrames, official computer and video game versions have been made available on many platforms. In addition to the versions listed above, they have been produced for PC, Amiga, BBC Micro, Game Boy Color, Game Boy Advance, Sega Genesis, Nintendo 64, PlayStation, PlayStation 2, GameCube, Xbox, and mobile phones, as well as a handheld electronic game in 1997 and a Nintendo DS release (along with Boggle, Yahtzee, and Battleship). In 2001, Stern Pinball, Inc. released a pinball machine version of Monopoly, designed by Pat Lawlor.^[107]​

Legal status[editar]

Although the game of Monopoly existed before the Parker Brothers edition, the company (now owned by Hasbro) has still claimed intellectual property rights over various aspects of the game, though it has not always prevailed in the courts.

The Anti-Monopoly case mentioned above, in addition to revealing some of the previously suppressed history of the game, also created a doctrine of 'purchase motivation' a 'test by which the trademark was valid only if consumers, when they asked for a Monopoly game, meant that they wanted Parker Brothers' version....'^[108]​ As a result, the name 'Monopoly' entered the public domain where the naming of games was concerned, and a profusion of non-Parker-Brothers variants were published. However, this doctrine was later eliminated by Congress in a revision of the trademark law,^[108]​ and Parker Brothers/Hasbro now claims trademark rights to the name and its variants, and has asserted it against others such as the publishers of 'Ghettopoly.' Professor Anspach assigned the 'Anti-Monopoly' trademark back to Parker Brothers, and Hasbro now owns it. Anspach's game remains in print, and is distributed and sold by University Games worldwide.^[109]​^[110]​^[111]​

Various patents have existed on the game of Monopoly and its predecessors, such as 'The Landlord's Game,' but all have now expired. The specific graphics of the game board, cards, and pieces are protected by copyright law and trademark law, as is the specific wording of the game's rules.

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Monopoly as a brand[editar]

Parker Brothers created a few accessories and licensed a few products shortly after it began publishing the game in 1935. These included a money pad and the first stock exchange add-on in 1936, a birthday card, and a song by Charles Tobias (lyrics) and John Jacob Loeb (music).^[112]​^[113]​ At the conclusion of the Anti-Monopoly case, Kenner Parker Toys began to seek trademarks on the design elements of Monopoly. It was at this time that the game's main logo was redesigned to feature 'Rich Uncle Pennybags' (now 'Mr. Monopoly') reaching out from the second 'O' in the word Monopoly.^[114]​ All items stamped with the red MONOPOLY logo also feature the word 'Brand' in small print. In the mid-1980s, after the success of the first 'collector's tin anniversary edition' (for the 50th anniversary), an edition of the game was produced by the Franklin Mint, the first edition to be published outside Parker Brothers. At about the same time, McDonald's started its first Monopoly game promotions, considered the company's most successful, which continue to the present.^[115]​

In recent years, the Monopoly brand has been licensed onto slot machines (which won an award in 1999), instant-win lottery tickets, and lines of 1:64 scale model cars produced by Johnny Lightning, which also included collectible game tokens.^[116]​^[117]​^[118]​ The brand has also been licensed onto clothing and accessories, including a line of bathroom accessories.^[119]​ The licenses to USAopoly and Winning Moves Games to produce new editions of the board game were also awarded in the mid-1990s.^[120]​^[121]​ While USAopoly produces many licensed spin-offs in North America, Winning Moves Games holds the licenses to produce different editions, including 'city' editions, in the United Kingdom, France and Germany.^[122]​^[123]​^[124]​

Véase también[editar]

• Easy Money (a similar type of game)

Referencias[editar]

1. ↑Anspach, Ralph (2000). The Billion Dollar Monopoly Swindle(en inglés) (2.ª edición). Xlibris Corporation. pp. 302-303. ISBN0-7388-3139-5.
2. ↑«Hasbro.com page with their version of the history of Monopoly»(en inglés). Hasbro. Consultado el 31 de enero de 2012.
3. ↑ ^abcdefOrbanes, Philip E. (2006). Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game & How it Got that Way(en inglés). Da Capo Press. ISBN0-306-81489-7.
4. ↑«Transcript of PBS». History Detectives. Consultado el 31 de enero de 2012.
5. ↑«Brer Fox an' Brer Rabbit photographs»(en inglés). Consultado el 31 de enero de 2012.
6. ↑«Ideafinder.com page on the history of Monopoly»(en inglés). Consultado el 2 de febrero de 2012.
7. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, page 31.
8. ↑Kennedy, Rod Jr. (2004). Monopoly: The Story Behind the World's Best-Selling Game (First edición). Gibbs Smith. p. 11. ISBN1-58685-322-8.
9. ↑Orbanes, Philip (1999). The Monopoly Companion: The Players Guide (Second edición). Adams Media Corporation. p. 16. ISBN1-58062-175-9.
10. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, page 33.
11. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly Companion, Second edition. Page 17.
12. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, page 30.
13. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, page 41.
14. ↑ ^ab'From Berks to Boardwalk' originally published in the Winter 1978 'Historical Review of Berks County.'
15. ↑Kennedy. Page 12.
16. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, page 45.
17. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, page 46.
18. ↑Passing Go: Early Monopoly, 1933–1937 by 'Clarence B. Darwin' (pseudonym for David Sadowski), Folkopoly Press, River Forest, Illinois. Photograph on Page 197.
19. ↑Walsh, Tim (2004). The Playmakers: Amazing Origins of Timeless Toys. Keys Publishing. p. 48. ISBN0-9646973-4-3.
20. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly Companion Second edition. Page 20.
21. ↑Anspach, The Billion Dollar Monopoly Swindle, page 140.
22. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, page 52.
23. ↑ ^abOrbanes, Monopoly Companion, Second edition. Page 21.
24. ↑Anspach, The Billion Dollar Monopoly Swindle, page 132.
25. ↑Walsh. Page 49.
26. ↑Anspach, The Billion Dollar Monopoly Swindle, page 134.
27. ↑Anspach, The Billion Dollar Monopoly Swindle, pages 148–149.
28. ↑[1] Early Monopoly Game Box Designs
29. ↑ ^abWalsh. Page 51. Las cartas originales de rechazo de Milton Bradley y Parker Brothers son reproducidas en esta page.
30. ↑Orbanes, Philip E. (2004). The Game Makers: The Story of Parker Brothers (First edición). Harvard Business School Press. p. 92. ISBN1-59139-269-1.
31. ↑Orbanes. The Game Makers. Page 93.
32. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly Companion Second edition. Page 24.
33. ↑Orbanes, The Game Makers. Page 103.
34. ↑Anspach, The Billion Dollar Monopoly Swindle, pages 100–101.
35. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, pages 75–76.
36. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, page 76.
37. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, page 78.
38. ↑Orbanes, Philip. 'Monopoly Memories,' booklet, published in 2002 by Winning Moves Games. Included with the reproduction of the 1935 Parker Brothers Monopoly Deluxe Edition set. Page 6.
39. ↑ ^abOrbanes. The Game Makers. Page 95.
40. ↑Orbanes, The Game Makers. Page 98.
41. ↑Orbanes, The Game Makers. Pages 98–99
42. ↑Orbanes, The Game Makers. Page 103
43. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, Appendix V, page 211.
44. ↑Monopoly Lexicon page for Italy, by Albert C. Veldhuis.
45. ↑Monopoly Lexicon page for Austrian Standard Editions.
46. ↑Monopoly Lexicon page for early Monopoly editions in The Netherlands, in Dutch.
47. ↑Walsh. Page 56.
48. ↑Orbanes. The Game Makers. Color photographic insert, page 10.
49. ↑Monopoly Lexicon page for early Monopoly editions from Great Britain.
50. ↑English introductory page to the Monopoly Lexicon website.
51. ↑Monopoly Lexicon page showing three hand made examples of Monopoly from the German Democratic Republic
52. ↑Monopoly Lexicon page for Russia.
53. ↑Orbanes. 'Monopoly Memories.' Pages 5–6.
54. ↑Sadowski, Passing Go. Page 139.
55. ↑Brady, Maxine (1974). The Monopoly Book: Strategy and Tactics of the World's Most Popular Game (First hardcover edición). D. McKay Co. p. 20. ISBN0-679-20292-7.
56. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, pages 93–94.
57. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, page 94.
58. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, page 98.
59. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, pages 100–101.
60. ↑Orbanes. 'Monopoly Memories.' Page 2
61. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, page 107.
62. ↑Brady. Page 25.
63. ↑Brady. Pages 26–27.
64. ↑ ^abOrbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Popular Game, photo insert, page 25.
65. ↑Brady. Page 20
66. ↑Brady, pages 21–24.
67. ↑Anspach, page 303.
68. ↑Brandreth, pages 169–174.
69. ↑Moore, Tim (2002). Do Not Pass Go: From the Old Kent Road to Mayfair. Vintage UK, division of Random House. p. 4. ISBN0-09-943386-9.
70. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly Companion, Second Edition. Pages 140–142.
71. ↑Brady, page 10
72. ↑News article from Sky News. Accessed July 24, 2006.
73. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, page 188.
74. ↑[2] Hasbro.com description page
75. ↑Interview with Victor Watson for 'Under the Boardwalk', 5/23/2009
76. ↑Orbanes. Monopoly Companion Second Edition. Page 156.
77. ↑Brandreth, Gyles (1985). The Monopoly Omnibus (First hardcover edición). Willow Books. p. 185. ISBN0-00-218166-5.
78. ↑Interview with Randolph P. Barton for 'Under the Boardwalk', 7/28/2008
79. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, page 116.
80. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, page 155.
81. ↑Brandreth. Page 187.
82. ↑ ^abcdefghij1973–1995 World Champions are listed in Philip Orbanes's Monopoly Companion, second edition, page 171.
83. ↑Information on the 2000 World Monopoly Championship from Mind Sports Worldwide's MindZine.
84. ↑2003 U.S. Tournament 'Fun Facts' from hasbro.com via Internet Archive.
85. ↑Press Release on Hasbro.com naming the 2004 World Monopoly Champion via Internet Archive.
86. ↑ ^abcdefghijkl1973–2003 US Champions are listed in Philip Orbanes's Monopoly Companion, third edition, page 169.
87. ↑http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=jQFHAAAAIBAJ&sjid=2_0MAAAAIBAJ&pg=1129%2C1809387
88. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, page 121.
89. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, page 122.
90. ↑Anspach, The Billion Dollar Monopoly Swindle, pages 104–106 and pages 134–135.
91. ↑Anspach, The Billion Dollar Monopoly Swindle, page 249.
92. ↑Anspach, pages 269–271.
93. ↑Anspach, page 273.
94. ↑Anspach, page 286.
95. ↑Partial scan of the United States Supreme Court decision to not hear the Anti-Monopoly, Inc. vs. General Mills Fun Group, Inc. case.
96. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, pages 120–125.
97. ↑Anspach, page 301
98. ↑Quotation from the inside cover of the game booklet included with the special Canadian Edition of Monopoly, published in 1982.
99. ↑Hasbro's Monopoly History and Fun Facts page
100. ↑Orbanes, Philip E. (1988). The Monopoly Companion (First edición). Bob Adams, Inc. p. 190. ISBN1-55850-950-X.
101. ↑List of electronic version release dates on monopolycollector.com.
102. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly Companion Second Edition. Page 185.
103. ↑«Monopoly». Doctor Who News Page. 30 de abril de 2011.
104. ↑USAopoly Corporate Sales information
105. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, pages 203–204.
106. ↑Hasbro's news release for the new game token in its 1998–1999 campaign via the Internet Archive.
107. ↑Monopoly Pinball page at sternpinball.com.
108. ↑ ^abOrbanes, The Game Makers. Page 170.
109. ↑University Games USA website, Anti-Monopoly page
110. ↑University Games UK website, Anti-Monopoly page
111. ↑University Games France website
112. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, Appendix II, page 199
113. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, photo insert page 29.
114. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, pages 136–137.
115. ↑Orbanes, Monopoly: The World's Most Famous Game, pages 135–136.
116. ↑Announcement of Monopoly slot machines byWMS Gaming winning an award for Most Innovative Gaming Product, January 1999
117. ↑Illinois Lottery's 'Pick and Play' US$5 MONOPOLY lottery tickets via Internet Archive
118. ↑Ohio Lottery Monopoly US$2 Instant Game via Internet Archive
119. ↑Monopoly Bathroom Accessories on Canada-shops.com
120. ↑USAopoly's 'About Us' web page.
121. ↑Winning Moves Games 'About Us' web page.
122. ↑Web page list of official Monopoly board games published by Winning Moves Games in the United Kingdom.
123. ↑Web page list of official Monopoly board games published by Winning Moves Games in France via Internet Archive.
124. ↑Web page list of official Monopoly board games published by Winning Moves Games in Germany.

Enlaces externos[editar]

Official sites[editar]

History[editar]

• Patente USPTO nº 748626 – Patent for the first version of The Landlord's Game
• Patente USPTO nº 1509312 – Patent for the second version of The Landlord's Game
• Patente USPTO nº 2026082 – Patent awarded to C.B. Darrow for 'Monopoly' on December 31, 1935
• Early history of Monopoly via Internet Archive
• Online photo album of many historical U.S. Monopoly sets, from Charles Darrow's sets through the 1950s
• Under the Boardwalk - A MONOPOLY Documentary - Film detailing the early history of the game with interviews including Phil Orbanes, Randolph Barton, Victor Watson, & Charles Darrow II.

MonopolyCategoría:Monopoly (game)